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p{color:#d5f5e3;font-size:1rem;}.progress-bar{position:fixed;top:0;left:0;height:3px;background:var(--accent);z-index:200;transition:width .1s linear;width:0%;}#back-top{position:fixed;bottom:2rem;right:2rem;background:var(--green);color:#fff;width:42px;height:42px;border-radius:50%;border:none;cursor:pointer;font-size:1.1rem;box-shadow:0 4px 14px rgba(26,122,74,.35);display:flex;align-items:center;justify-content:center;opacity:0;transition:opacity .25s,transform .25s;pointer-events:none;}#back-top.visible{opacity:1;pointer-events:auto;}#back-top:hover{transform:translateY(-2px);}@media(max-width:720px){.page-wrap{grid-template-columns:1fr;}.sidebar{position:static;display:none;}.hero::before{display:none;}nav .nav-links{display:none;}}<\/style>\r\n<\/head>\r\n<body>\r\n<div class=\"progress-bar\" id=\"progress\"><\/div>\r\n<nav><div class=\"nav-brand\">Pak <span>Notes Hub<\/span><\/div><div class=\"nav-links\"><a href=\"#unit-1\">Atoms<\/a><a href=\"#unit-3\">Bonding<\/a><a href=\"#unit-6\">Organic<\/a><\/div><\/nav>\r\n<section class=\"hero\"><div class=\"hero-tag\">\u2697\ufe0f DAE Mechanical \u2014 1st Year \u2014 Subject Code 112<\/div><h1>Chemistry<br\/><span>Complete Notes \u2014 Easy English<\/span><\/h1><p>Atomic Structure \u00b7 Chemical Bonding \u00b7 Reactions \u00b7 Organic Chemistry \u00b7 Complete Curriculum<\/p><div class=\"hero-pills\"><div class=\"pill\">Atomic Theory<\/div><div class=\"pill\">Chemical Reactions<\/div><div class=\"pill\">Organic Compounds<\/div><\/div><\/section>\r\n<div class=\"page-wrap\"><aside class=\"sidebar\"><div class=\"sidebar-title\">\ud83e\uddea Table of Contents<\/div><ul class=\"toc-list\"><li><a href=\"#unit-1\"><span class=\"toc-num\">1<\/span> Atomic Structure<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"#unit-2\"><span class=\"toc-num\">2<\/span> Periodic Table<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"#unit-3\"><span class=\"toc-num\">3<\/span> Chemical Bonding<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"#unit-4\"><span class=\"toc-num\">4<\/span> Reactions<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"#unit-5\"><span class=\"toc-num\">5<\/span> Acids & Bases<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"#unit-6\"><span class=\"toc-num\">6<\/span> Organic Chemistry<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"#unit-7\"><span class=\"toc-num\">7<\/span> Solutions<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"#unit-8\"><span class=\"toc-num\">8<\/span> Thermochemistry<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/aside><main><div class=\"unit\" id=\"unit-1\"><div class=\"unit-header\"><div class=\"unit-num-badge\">Unit 1<\/div><h2>Atomic Structure<\/h2><p>Fundamental Concepts<\/p><\/div><div class=\"unit-body\"><h3>Dalton's Atomic Theory<\/h3><ul><li>Matter consists of atoms<\/li><li>Atoms of element are identical<\/li><li>Atoms combine in fixed ratios<\/li><li>Atoms cannot be created\/destroyed<\/li><\/ul><h3>Subatomic Particles<\/h3><table class=\"data-table\"><thead><tr><th>Particle<\/th><th>Charge<\/th><th>Location<\/th><th>Mass<\/th><\/tr><\/thead><tbody><tr><td>Proton<\/td><td>+1<\/td><td>Nucleus<\/td><td>1 amu<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Neutron<\/td><td>0<\/td><td>Nucleus<\/td><td>1 amu<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Electron<\/td><td>-1<\/td><td>Orbitals<\/td><td>1\/1836 amu<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><h3>Bohr's Model<\/h3><ul><li>Electrons orbit nucleus in shells<\/li><li>Energy levels: K, L, M, N...<\/li><li>Maximum electrons: 2n\u00b2<\/li><\/ul><h3>Electron Configuration<\/h3><p>Order of filling: 1s\u00b2 2s\u00b2 2p\u2076 3s\u00b2 3p\u2076...<\/p><div class=\"practice\"><strong>\u270f\ufe0f Practice:<\/strong> Write electron configurations for elements<\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"unit\" id=\"unit-2\"><div class=\"unit-header\"><div class=\"unit-num-badge\">Unit 2<\/div><h2>Periodic Table and Properties<\/h2><p>Organization and Trends<\/p><\/div><div class=\"unit-body\"><h3>Periodic Table Structure<\/h3><ul><li><strong>Periods:<\/strong> Horizontal rows (8 periods)<\/li><li><strong>Groups:<\/strong> Vertical columns (18 groups)<\/li><li><strong>Blocks:<\/strong> s, p, d, f regions<\/li><\/ul><h3>Periodic Properties<\/h3><table class=\"data-table\"><thead><tr><th>Property<\/th><th>Trend<\/th><th>Reason<\/th><\/tr><\/thead><tbody><tr><td>Atomic Radius<\/td><td>Decreases left to right<\/td><td>Nuclear charge<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Ionization Energy<\/td><td>Increases left to right<\/td><td>Easier to remove electrons<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Electronegativity<\/td><td>Increases left to right<\/td><td>Attraction for electrons<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><h3>Element Categories<\/h3><ul><li><strong>Metals:<\/strong> Alkali, Alkaline earth, Transition<\/li><li><strong>Non-metals:<\/strong> Halogens, Noble gases<\/li><li><strong>Metalloids:<\/strong> Semi-metals<\/li><\/ul><div class=\"practice\"><strong>\u270f\ufe0f Practice:<\/strong> Predict element properties using periodic trends<\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"unit\" id=\"unit-3\"><div class=\"unit-header\"><div class=\"unit-num-badge\">Unit 3<\/div><h2>Chemical Bonding<\/h2><p>Types and Formation<\/p><\/div><div class=\"unit-body\"><h3>Ionic Bonding<\/h3><ul><li>Complete electron transfer<\/li><li>Forms cations and anions<\/li><li>Example: NaCl (sodium chloride)<\/li><\/ul><h3>Covalent Bonding<\/h3><ul><li>Electrons shared between atoms<\/li><li>Single, double, triple bonds<\/li><li>Examples: H\u2082, O\u2082, CO\u2082<\/li><\/ul><h3>Metallic Bonding<\/h3><ul><li>Sea of delocalized electrons<\/li><li>Properties: Conductivity, malleability<\/li><\/ul><h3>Bond Characteristics<\/h3><table class=\"data-table\"><thead><tr><th>Type<\/th><th>Electronegativity Diff<\/th><th>Character<\/th><\/tr><\/thead><tbody><tr><td>Ionic<\/td><td>>1.7<\/td><td>Complete transfer<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Polar Covalent<\/td><td>0.4-1.7<\/td><td>Partial transfer<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Nonpolar Covalent<\/td><td><0.4<\/td><td>Equal sharing<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><div class=\"practice\"><strong>\u270f\ufe0f Practice:<\/strong> Classify bonds and predict compound properties<\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"unit\" id=\"unit-4\"><div class=\"unit-header\"><div class=\"unit-num-badge\">Unit 4<\/div><h2>Chemical Reactions<\/h2><p>Types and Equations<\/p><\/div><div class=\"unit-body\"><h3>Reaction Types<\/h3><ul><li><strong>Synthesis:<\/strong> A + B \u2192 AB<\/li><li><strong>Decomposition:<\/strong> AB \u2192 A + B<\/li><li><strong>Single Displacement:<\/strong> A + BC \u2192 AC + B<\/li><li><strong>Double Displacement:<\/strong> AB + CD \u2192 AD + CB<\/li><li><strong>Combustion:<\/strong> Fuel + O\u2082 \u2192 CO\u2082 + H\u2082O<\/li><\/ul><h3>Balancing Equations<\/h3><p>Use coefficients to balance atoms on both sides. Practice with examples like:<\/p><p>2H\u2082 + O\u2082 \u2192 2H\u2082O (water formation)<\/p><h3>Stoichiometry<\/h3><ul><li>Molar ratios from balanced equations<\/li><li>Limiting reactant determination<\/li><li>Percent yield calculations<\/li><\/ul><div class=\"practice\"><strong>\u270f\ufe0f Practice:<\/strong> Balance chemical equations and solve stoichiometry problems<\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"unit\" id=\"unit-5\"><div class=\"unit-header\"><div class=\"unit-num-badge\">Unit 5<\/div><h2>Acids and Bases<\/h2><p>Properties and Reactions<\/p><\/div><div class=\"unit-body\"><h3>Arrhenius Definition<\/h3><ul><li><strong>Acids:<\/strong> Produce H\u207a ions (HCl, H\u2082SO\u2084)<\/li><li><strong>Bases:<\/strong> Produce OH\u207b ions (NaOH, NH\u2083)<\/li><\/ul><h3>pH Scale<\/h3><ul><li>Range: 0-14<\/li><li>Neutral: pH = 7 (pure water)<\/li><li>Acidic: pH < 7<\/li><li>Basic: pH > 7<\/li><li>pH = -log[H\u207a]<\/li><\/ul><h3>Neutralization Reaction<\/h3><p>Acid + Base \u2192 Salt + Water<br>HCl + NaOH \u2192 NaCl + H\u2082O<\/p><h3>Titration<\/h3><ul><li>Determine concentration of unknown<\/li><li>Using standard solution<\/li><li>Indicator color change at endpoint<\/li><\/ul><div class=\"practice\"><strong>\u270f\ufe0f Practice:<\/strong> Calculate pH and perform acid-base titrations<\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"unit\" id=\"unit-6\"><div class=\"unit-header\"><div class=\"unit-num-badge\">Unit 6<\/div><h2>Organic Chemistry Basics<\/h2><p>Carbon Compounds<\/p><\/div><div class=\"unit-body\"><h3>Hydrocarbons<\/h3><ul><li><strong>Alkanes:<\/strong> C-C single bonds (C\u2099H\u2082\u2099\u208a\u2082)<\/li><li><strong>Alkenes:<\/strong> C=C double bonds (C\u2099H\u2082\u2099)<\/li><li><strong>Alkynes:<\/strong> C\u2261C triple bonds (C\u2099H\u2082\u2099\u208b\u2082)<\/li><\/ul><h3>Functional Groups<\/h3><table class=\"data-table\"><thead><tr><th>Group<\/th><th>Formula<\/th><th>Type<\/th><\/tr><\/thead><tbody><tr><td>Alcohol<\/td><td>-OH<\/td><td>Hydroxyl<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Aldehyde<\/td><td>-CHO<\/td><td>Carbonyl<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Carboxylic Acid<\/td><td>-COOH<\/td><td>Acidic<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><h3>Isomerism<\/h3><ul><li><strong>Structural:<\/strong> Different connectivity<\/li><li><strong>Geometric:<\/strong> Different spatial arrangement<\/li><\/ul><div class=\"practice\"><strong>\u270f\ufe0f Practice:<\/strong> Name organic compounds and identify isomers<\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"unit\" id=\"unit-7\"><div class=\"unit-header\"><div class=\"unit-num-badge\">Unit 7<\/div><h2>Solutions and Concentration<\/h2><p>Dissolving Substances<\/p><\/div><div class=\"unit-body\"><h3>Solution Components<\/h3><ul><li><strong>Solute:<\/strong> Dissolved substance<\/li><li><strong>Solvent:<\/strong> Dissolving medium<\/li><li><strong>Solution:<\/strong> Homogeneous mixture<\/li><\/ul><h3>Concentration Units<\/h3><table class=\"data-table\"><thead><tr><th>Unit<\/th><th>Definition<\/th><\/tr><\/thead><tbody><tr><td>Molarity (M)<\/td><td>mol solute \/ L solution<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Molality (m)<\/td><td>mol solute \/ kg solvent<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Percent (w\/w)<\/td><td>(mass solute \/ mass solution) \u00d7 100<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><h3>Solubility Factors<\/h3><ul><li>Temperature (usually increases)<\/li><li>Pressure (gases affected)<\/li><li>Nature of solute and solvent<\/li><\/ul><div class=\"practice\"><strong>\u270f\ufe0f Practice:<\/strong> Calculate molarity and prepare solutions<\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"unit\" id=\"unit-8\"><div class=\"unit-header\"><div class=\"unit-num-badge\">Unit 8<\/div><h2>Thermochemistry<\/h2><p>Heat and Energy in Reactions<\/p><\/div><div class=\"unit-body\"><h3>Enthalpy<\/h3><ul><li><strong>\u0394H:<\/strong> Change in enthalpy<\/li><li><strong>Exothermic:<\/strong> \u0394H negative (releases heat)<\/li><li><strong>Endothermic:<\/strong> \u0394H positive (absorbs heat)<\/li><\/ul><h3>Types of Reactions<\/h3><table class=\"data-table\"><thead><tr><th>Type<\/th><th>\u0394H<\/th><th>Example<\/th><\/tr><\/thead><tbody><tr><td>Exothermic<\/td><td>Negative<\/td><td>Combustion<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Endothermic<\/td><td>Positive<\/td><td>Melting ice<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><h3>Hess's Law<\/h3><p>Enthalpy of overall reaction equals sum of steps.<\/p><div class=\"practice\"><strong>\u270f\ufe0f Practice:<\/strong> Calculate enthalpy changes using Hess's Law<\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"congrats\"><h2>\u2728 Congratulations!<\/h2><p>You've completed Chemistry! Master the science of matter and reactions.<\/p><\/div><\/main><\/div>\r\n<button id=\"back-top\" onclick=\"window.scrollTo({top:0,behavior:'smooth'})\">\u2191<\/button>\r\n<script>const progress=document.getElementById('progress');window.addEventListener('scroll',()=>{const scrollPercent=(window.scrollY\/(document.documentElement.scrollHeight-window.innerHeight))*100;progress.style.width=scrollPercent+'%';document.getElementById('back-top').classList.toggle('visible',window.scrollY>400);});document.querySelectorAll('.unit').forEach(unit=>{const observer=new IntersectionObserver(entries=>{entries.forEach(entry=>{if(entry.isIntersecting){const id=entry.target.id;document.querySelectorAll('.toc-list a').forEach(a=>{a.classList.toggle('active',a.href.endsWith(id));});}});},{rootMargin:'-20% 0px -70% 0px'});observer.observe(unit);});<\/script>\r\n<\/body>\r\n<\/html>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Chemistry (112) \u2013 DAE Mechanical 1st Year \u2013 Pak Notes Hub Pak Notes HubAtomsBondingOrganic \u2697\ufe0f DAE Mechanical \u2014 1st Year \u2014 Subject Code 112 ChemistryComplete Notes \u2014 Easy English Atomic Structure \u00b7 Chemical Bonding \u00b7 Reactions \u00b7 Organic Chemistry \u00b7 Complete Curriculum Atomic TheoryChemical ReactionsOrganic Compounds \ud83e\uddea Table of Contents 1 Atomic Structure 2 Periodic […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_angie_page":false,"page_builder":"","footnotes":""},"categories":[1],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-678","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-uncategorized"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/paknoteshub.online\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts\/678","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/paknoteshub.online\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/paknoteshub.online\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/paknoteshub.online\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/paknoteshub.online\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fcomments&post=678"}],"version-history":[{"count":4,"href":"https:\/\/paknoteshub.online\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts\/678\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":682,"href":"https:\/\/paknoteshub.online\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts\/678\/revisions\/682"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/paknoteshub.online\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fmedia&parent=678"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/paknoteshub.online\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fcategories&post=678"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/paknoteshub.online\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Ftags&post=678"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}

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\n\t\t\t\t\t\r\n\r\n\r\n Chemistry (112) \u2013 DAE Mechanical 1st Year \u2013 Pak Notes Hub<\/title>\r\n <link href=\"https:\/\/fonts.googleapis.com\/css2?family=Inter:wght@400;500;600;700&family=Fira+Code:wght@400;500&display=swap\" rel=\"stylesheet\"\/><style>*,*::before,*::after{box-sizing:border-box;margin:0;padding:0;}:root{--green:#1a7a4a;--green-dark:#145f38;--green-light:#e8f5ee;--teal:#17a589;--accent:#f0b127;--dark:#1c2833;--mid:#566573;--light:#f4f6f7;--code-bg:#f0f4f8;--code-border:#2e86c1;--note-bg:#fef9e7;--note-border:#f0b127;--white:#ffffff;--radius:10px;--shadow:0 4px 24px rgba(26,122,74,.10);}html{scroll-behavior:smooth;}body{font-family:'Inter',sans-serif;background:#f2f6f3;color:var(--dark);line-height:1.7;font-size:15px;}nav{position:sticky;top:0;z-index:100;background:var(--green-dark);padding:0 2rem;display:flex;align-items:center;justify-content:space-between;height:56px;box-shadow:0 2px 12px 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p{color:#d5f5e3;font-size:1rem;}.progress-bar{position:fixed;top:0;left:0;height:3px;background:var(--accent);z-index:200;transition:width .1s linear;width:0%;}#back-top{position:fixed;bottom:2rem;right:2rem;background:var(--green);color:#fff;width:42px;height:42px;border-radius:50%;border:none;cursor:pointer;font-size:1.1rem;box-shadow:0 4px 14px rgba(26,122,74,.35);display:flex;align-items:center;justify-content:center;opacity:0;transition:opacity .25s,transform .25s;pointer-events:none;}#back-top.visible{opacity:1;pointer-events:auto;}#back-top:hover{transform:translateY(-2px);}@media(max-width:720px){.page-wrap{grid-template-columns:1fr;}.sidebar{position:static;display:none;}.hero::before{display:none;}nav .nav-links{display:none;}}<\/style>\r\n<\/head>\r\n<body>\r\n<div class=\"progress-bar\" id=\"progress\"><\/div>\r\n<nav><div class=\"nav-brand\">Pak <span>Notes Hub<\/span><\/div><div class=\"nav-links\"><a href=\"#unit-1\">Atoms<\/a><a href=\"#unit-3\">Bonding<\/a><a href=\"#unit-6\">Organic<\/a><\/div><\/nav>\r\n<section class=\"hero\"><div class=\"hero-tag\">\u2697\ufe0f DAE Mechanical \u2014 1st Year \u2014 Subject Code 112<\/div><h1>Chemistry<br\/><span>Complete Notes \u2014 Easy English<\/span><\/h1><p>Atomic Structure \u00b7 Chemical Bonding \u00b7 Reactions \u00b7 Organic Chemistry \u00b7 Complete Curriculum<\/p><div class=\"hero-pills\"><div class=\"pill\">Atomic Theory<\/div><div class=\"pill\">Chemical Reactions<\/div><div class=\"pill\">Organic Compounds<\/div><\/div><\/section>\r\n<div class=\"page-wrap\"><aside class=\"sidebar\"><div class=\"sidebar-title\">\ud83e\uddea Table of Contents<\/div><ul class=\"toc-list\"><li><a href=\"#unit-1\"><span class=\"toc-num\">1<\/span> Atomic Structure<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"#unit-2\"><span class=\"toc-num\">2<\/span> Periodic Table<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"#unit-3\"><span class=\"toc-num\">3<\/span> Chemical Bonding<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"#unit-4\"><span class=\"toc-num\">4<\/span> Reactions<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"#unit-5\"><span class=\"toc-num\">5<\/span> Acids & Bases<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"#unit-6\"><span class=\"toc-num\">6<\/span> Organic Chemistry<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"#unit-7\"><span class=\"toc-num\">7<\/span> Solutions<\/a><\/li><li><a href=\"#unit-8\"><span class=\"toc-num\">8<\/span> Thermochemistry<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/aside><main><div class=\"unit\" id=\"unit-1\"><div class=\"unit-header\"><div class=\"unit-num-badge\">Unit 1<\/div><h2>Atomic Structure<\/h2><p>Fundamental Concepts<\/p><\/div><div class=\"unit-body\"><h3>Dalton's Atomic Theory<\/h3><ul><li>Matter consists of atoms<\/li><li>Atoms of element are identical<\/li><li>Atoms combine in fixed ratios<\/li><li>Atoms cannot be created\/destroyed<\/li><\/ul><h3>Subatomic Particles<\/h3><table class=\"data-table\"><thead><tr><th>Particle<\/th><th>Charge<\/th><th>Location<\/th><th>Mass<\/th><\/tr><\/thead><tbody><tr><td>Proton<\/td><td>+1<\/td><td>Nucleus<\/td><td>1 amu<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Neutron<\/td><td>0<\/td><td>Nucleus<\/td><td>1 amu<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Electron<\/td><td>-1<\/td><td>Orbitals<\/td><td>1\/1836 amu<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><h3>Bohr's Model<\/h3><ul><li>Electrons orbit nucleus in shells<\/li><li>Energy levels: K, L, M, N...<\/li><li>Maximum electrons: 2n\u00b2<\/li><\/ul><h3>Electron Configuration<\/h3><p>Order of filling: 1s\u00b2 2s\u00b2 2p\u2076 3s\u00b2 3p\u2076...<\/p><div class=\"practice\"><strong>\u270f\ufe0f Practice:<\/strong> Write electron configurations for elements<\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"unit\" id=\"unit-2\"><div class=\"unit-header\"><div class=\"unit-num-badge\">Unit 2<\/div><h2>Periodic Table and Properties<\/h2><p>Organization and Trends<\/p><\/div><div class=\"unit-body\"><h3>Periodic Table Structure<\/h3><ul><li><strong>Periods:<\/strong> Horizontal rows (8 periods)<\/li><li><strong>Groups:<\/strong> Vertical columns (18 groups)<\/li><li><strong>Blocks:<\/strong> s, p, d, f regions<\/li><\/ul><h3>Periodic Properties<\/h3><table class=\"data-table\"><thead><tr><th>Property<\/th><th>Trend<\/th><th>Reason<\/th><\/tr><\/thead><tbody><tr><td>Atomic Radius<\/td><td>Decreases left to right<\/td><td>Nuclear charge<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Ionization Energy<\/td><td>Increases left to right<\/td><td>Easier to remove electrons<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Electronegativity<\/td><td>Increases left to right<\/td><td>Attraction for electrons<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><h3>Element Categories<\/h3><ul><li><strong>Metals:<\/strong> Alkali, Alkaline earth, Transition<\/li><li><strong>Non-metals:<\/strong> Halogens, Noble gases<\/li><li><strong>Metalloids:<\/strong> Semi-metals<\/li><\/ul><div class=\"practice\"><strong>\u270f\ufe0f Practice:<\/strong> Predict element properties using periodic trends<\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"unit\" id=\"unit-3\"><div class=\"unit-header\"><div class=\"unit-num-badge\">Unit 3<\/div><h2>Chemical Bonding<\/h2><p>Types and Formation<\/p><\/div><div class=\"unit-body\"><h3>Ionic Bonding<\/h3><ul><li>Complete electron transfer<\/li><li>Forms cations and anions<\/li><li>Example: NaCl (sodium chloride)<\/li><\/ul><h3>Covalent Bonding<\/h3><ul><li>Electrons shared between atoms<\/li><li>Single, double, triple bonds<\/li><li>Examples: H\u2082, O\u2082, CO\u2082<\/li><\/ul><h3>Metallic Bonding<\/h3><ul><li>Sea of delocalized electrons<\/li><li>Properties: Conductivity, malleability<\/li><\/ul><h3>Bond Characteristics<\/h3><table class=\"data-table\"><thead><tr><th>Type<\/th><th>Electronegativity Diff<\/th><th>Character<\/th><\/tr><\/thead><tbody><tr><td>Ionic<\/td><td>>1.7<\/td><td>Complete transfer<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Polar Covalent<\/td><td>0.4-1.7<\/td><td>Partial transfer<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Nonpolar Covalent<\/td><td><0.4<\/td><td>Equal sharing<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><div class=\"practice\"><strong>\u270f\ufe0f Practice:<\/strong> Classify bonds and predict compound properties<\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"unit\" id=\"unit-4\"><div class=\"unit-header\"><div class=\"unit-num-badge\">Unit 4<\/div><h2>Chemical Reactions<\/h2><p>Types and Equations<\/p><\/div><div class=\"unit-body\"><h3>Reaction Types<\/h3><ul><li><strong>Synthesis:<\/strong> A + B \u2192 AB<\/li><li><strong>Decomposition:<\/strong> AB \u2192 A + B<\/li><li><strong>Single Displacement:<\/strong> A + BC \u2192 AC + B<\/li><li><strong>Double Displacement:<\/strong> AB + CD \u2192 AD + CB<\/li><li><strong>Combustion:<\/strong> Fuel + O\u2082 \u2192 CO\u2082 + H\u2082O<\/li><\/ul><h3>Balancing Equations<\/h3><p>Use coefficients to balance atoms on both sides. Practice with examples like:<\/p><p>2H\u2082 + O\u2082 \u2192 2H\u2082O (water formation)<\/p><h3>Stoichiometry<\/h3><ul><li>Molar ratios from balanced equations<\/li><li>Limiting reactant determination<\/li><li>Percent yield calculations<\/li><\/ul><div class=\"practice\"><strong>\u270f\ufe0f Practice:<\/strong> Balance chemical equations and solve stoichiometry problems<\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"unit\" id=\"unit-5\"><div class=\"unit-header\"><div class=\"unit-num-badge\">Unit 5<\/div><h2>Acids and Bases<\/h2><p>Properties and Reactions<\/p><\/div><div class=\"unit-body\"><h3>Arrhenius Definition<\/h3><ul><li><strong>Acids:<\/strong> Produce H\u207a ions (HCl, H\u2082SO\u2084)<\/li><li><strong>Bases:<\/strong> Produce OH\u207b ions (NaOH, NH\u2083)<\/li><\/ul><h3>pH Scale<\/h3><ul><li>Range: 0-14<\/li><li>Neutral: pH = 7 (pure water)<\/li><li>Acidic: pH < 7<\/li><li>Basic: pH > 7<\/li><li>pH = -log[H\u207a]<\/li><\/ul><h3>Neutralization Reaction<\/h3><p>Acid + Base \u2192 Salt + Water<br>HCl + NaOH \u2192 NaCl + H\u2082O<\/p><h3>Titration<\/h3><ul><li>Determine concentration of unknown<\/li><li>Using standard solution<\/li><li>Indicator color change at endpoint<\/li><\/ul><div class=\"practice\"><strong>\u270f\ufe0f Practice:<\/strong> Calculate pH and perform acid-base titrations<\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"unit\" id=\"unit-6\"><div class=\"unit-header\"><div class=\"unit-num-badge\">Unit 6<\/div><h2>Organic Chemistry Basics<\/h2><p>Carbon Compounds<\/p><\/div><div class=\"unit-body\"><h3>Hydrocarbons<\/h3><ul><li><strong>Alkanes:<\/strong> C-C single bonds (C\u2099H\u2082\u2099\u208a\u2082)<\/li><li><strong>Alkenes:<\/strong> C=C double bonds (C\u2099H\u2082\u2099)<\/li><li><strong>Alkynes:<\/strong> C\u2261C triple bonds (C\u2099H\u2082\u2099\u208b\u2082)<\/li><\/ul><h3>Functional Groups<\/h3><table class=\"data-table\"><thead><tr><th>Group<\/th><th>Formula<\/th><th>Type<\/th><\/tr><\/thead><tbody><tr><td>Alcohol<\/td><td>-OH<\/td><td>Hydroxyl<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Aldehyde<\/td><td>-CHO<\/td><td>Carbonyl<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Carboxylic Acid<\/td><td>-COOH<\/td><td>Acidic<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><h3>Isomerism<\/h3><ul><li><strong>Structural:<\/strong> Different connectivity<\/li><li><strong>Geometric:<\/strong> Different spatial arrangement<\/li><\/ul><div class=\"practice\"><strong>\u270f\ufe0f Practice:<\/strong> Name organic compounds and identify isomers<\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"unit\" id=\"unit-7\"><div class=\"unit-header\"><div class=\"unit-num-badge\">Unit 7<\/div><h2>Solutions and Concentration<\/h2><p>Dissolving Substances<\/p><\/div><div class=\"unit-body\"><h3>Solution Components<\/h3><ul><li><strong>Solute:<\/strong> Dissolved substance<\/li><li><strong>Solvent:<\/strong> Dissolving medium<\/li><li><strong>Solution:<\/strong> Homogeneous mixture<\/li><\/ul><h3>Concentration Units<\/h3><table class=\"data-table\"><thead><tr><th>Unit<\/th><th>Definition<\/th><\/tr><\/thead><tbody><tr><td>Molarity (M)<\/td><td>mol solute \/ L solution<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Molality (m)<\/td><td>mol solute \/ kg solvent<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Percent (w\/w)<\/td><td>(mass solute \/ mass solution) \u00d7 100<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><h3>Solubility Factors<\/h3><ul><li>Temperature (usually increases)<\/li><li>Pressure (gases affected)<\/li><li>Nature of solute and solvent<\/li><\/ul><div class=\"practice\"><strong>\u270f\ufe0f Practice:<\/strong> Calculate molarity and prepare solutions<\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"unit\" id=\"unit-8\"><div class=\"unit-header\"><div class=\"unit-num-badge\">Unit 8<\/div><h2>Thermochemistry<\/h2><p>Heat and Energy in Reactions<\/p><\/div><div class=\"unit-body\"><h3>Enthalpy<\/h3><ul><li><strong>\u0394H:<\/strong> Change in enthalpy<\/li><li><strong>Exothermic:<\/strong> \u0394H negative (releases heat)<\/li><li><strong>Endothermic:<\/strong> \u0394H positive (absorbs heat)<\/li><\/ul><h3>Types of Reactions<\/h3><table class=\"data-table\"><thead><tr><th>Type<\/th><th>\u0394H<\/th><th>Example<\/th><\/tr><\/thead><tbody><tr><td>Exothermic<\/td><td>Negative<\/td><td>Combustion<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>Endothermic<\/td><td>Positive<\/td><td>Melting ice<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><h3>Hess's Law<\/h3><p>Enthalpy of overall reaction equals sum of steps.<\/p><div class=\"practice\"><strong>\u270f\ufe0f Practice:<\/strong> Calculate enthalpy changes using Hess's Law<\/div><\/div><\/div><div class=\"congrats\"><h2>\u2728 Congratulations!<\/h2><p>You've completed Chemistry! Master the science of matter and reactions.<\/p><\/div><\/main><\/div>\r\n<button id=\"back-top\" onclick=\"window.scrollTo({top:0,behavior:'smooth'})\">\u2191<\/button>\r\n<script>const progress=document.getElementById('progress');window.addEventListener('scroll',()=>{const scrollPercent=(window.scrollY\/(document.documentElement.scrollHeight-window.innerHeight))*100;progress.style.width=scrollPercent+'%';document.getElementById('back-top').classList.toggle('visible',window.scrollY>400);});document.querySelectorAll('.unit').forEach(unit=>{const observer=new IntersectionObserver(entries=>{entries.forEach(entry=>{if(entry.isIntersecting){const id=entry.target.id;document.querySelectorAll('.toc-list a').forEach(a=>{a.classList.toggle('active',a.href.endsWith(id));});}});},{rootMargin:'-20% 0px -70% 0px'});observer.observe(unit);});<\/script>\r\n<\/body>\r\n<\/html>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Chemistry (112) \u2013 DAE Mechanical 1st Year \u2013 Pak Notes Hub Pak Notes HubAtomsBondingOrganic \u2697\ufe0f DAE Mechanical \u2014 1st Year \u2014 Subject Code 112 ChemistryComplete Notes \u2014 Easy English Atomic Structure \u00b7 Chemical Bonding \u00b7 Reactions \u00b7 Organic Chemistry \u00b7 Complete Curriculum Atomic TheoryChemical ReactionsOrganic Compounds \ud83e\uddea Table of Contents 1 Atomic Structure 2 Periodic […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_angie_page":false,"page_builder":"","footnotes":""},"categories":[1],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-678","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-uncategorized"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/paknoteshub.online\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts\/678","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/paknoteshub.online\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/paknoteshub.online\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/paknoteshub.online\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/paknoteshub.online\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fcomments&post=678"}],"version-history":[{"count":4,"href":"https:\/\/paknoteshub.online\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts\/678\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":682,"href":"https:\/\/paknoteshub.online\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts\/678\/revisions\/682"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/paknoteshub.online\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fmedia&parent=678"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/paknoteshub.online\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fcategories&post=678"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/paknoteshub.online\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Ftags&post=678"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}